DNA structure	DNA has two anti parallel strands, they are held toghether by the pairing of two nitrogenous bases, and form a double helix. Backbone (Phospate-Pentose) (Nitrogeneous base) Pairs CG-AT Cytocin Guanin Adenin thymine
DNa replication	Leading strand: 1) Helicase unwinds the double helix 2) Primase marks primers at the beggining and end of strain 3) DNA Polymerase completes bases in direction 5 to 4) Exonuclease removes primers 5) DNA Polymerase completes srand endings 6) DNA ligase seals new strain to old one
Cell Cycle: Interphase	24 hours duration 23 hours interphase 1 hour mitosis G1 Metabolism, cell growth S DNA synthesis G2 Error check, building of centrosomes, preparation for Mitosis
Cell Cycle: Mitosis	Prophase: Chromosomes condense, a spindle forms Prometaphase: the nuclear membrane breaks apart Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the center Anaphase: chromosomes divide in two syster chromatides that go to the two cell poles Telophase: Chromosomes uncoil, new nuclear envelope forms Cytokinesis: two twin cells emerge and separate
DNA transcription	Dna gene containing area unwinds, and RNA Polymerase binds and completes the bases of the present trains, but forming a RNA Chain: AU GC The RNA instruction code formed is called Messenger RNA
DNA translation	the M-RNA chain exists the cell nucleus into the cytoplasma, were its translated by a Rybosome. used as a template to assemble a series of amino acids to produce a polypeptide with a specific amino acid sequence. The M-RNA has a series of codons (3 RNA-bases groups) wich match specificly with anticodons for a specific aminoacid floating around in the cell plasma.
Meiosis	Meiosis only for gametes. Steps: Prophase I: homologue chromosome pairs form, but chromosomes match at different points with their pair, causing them to randomly interchange genetic information. Metaphase: Ipairs align but in a random order ANafase: whole cromosomes are splited from the chromosome pair and dragged int to the cell poles. Telophase I: two nuclei form and two diploid cell emerge Meiosis II: follows all steps from mitosis, but without DNA replication in between. Result: Two haploid cells!!
GMO in everyday products	BT-Maize Golden rice Soya bean T45 rape Potatoes...
how to use bacteria for "inserting" new genes into plants:	Using the natural ocurring plasmids in bacteria: cell that is physically separated from a chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently. a gene is inserted in a plasmid, the bacteria cointegrates with plant cell, depositing its plasmid into the vegetal cell, and then a DNA recombination happens, allowing the dna in the plasmid and the dna in the cell to merge.
PCR	Polymerase Chain reaction DNa denaturized splits the two sna strands Primers used to locate the looked for gene used to obtain copies of diferent fragments, used in forensical medicine and other aplications. DNA amplification....
Crisper	Precise targeting and insertion of genes
Structure of water	Very polar, what allows hydrogen bond to form. Each water molecule bonds with up to 4 water molecules.
Emerging properties of water	Cohesion: strong atraction between themselves Adhesion: ability to adhere to other molecules and adsorb, what gives it its good capilary action, and allows to move against gravity, e.g. in plants. Specific heat: amount of heat absorbed or released by 1g of substance by changing its T 1°C. Because of the energy is used to break down hydrogen bonds, wich recover rapidly.
Cell membrane composition	Phospholipid bilayer: hydrophobic head exposed to water and hydrophillic tails form a shelter. :Fluid mosaic: meaning it is nod rigid, but in constant movement. Layer of phospholipid (phosphor + glicerol hydrophillic head, fatty acid tail hidrophobic tail) United with: glicoproteins, glicolipids, protein chanels and cholesterol. )
Passive & active transport	Passive: no energy investment, diffusion down its concentration gradient. Independent on the concentration gradient of other molecules. Diffussion happens due to the thermic ennergy or thermal motion that causes molecules to spread evenly into available space. Facilitated diffusion: Passive movement of molecules along concentration gradient with the help of proteins in cell membranes. Channel proteins: provide a hydrophillic coridor through the membrane to allowe passage of ions. Active transport: moves solutes up the concentration gradient, what requires energy: (ATP hydrolysis) using carrier proteins: a protein that binds proteins on one side of the membrane, then change shape using energy to allow the release of the component to the incide of the cell.
Osmoregulation	Osmoregulation is the passive regulation of the osmotic pressure of an organism's body fluids, detected by osmoreceptors, to maintain the homeostasis of the organism's water content; (sea water fish) having a very concentrated urine or Paramecium with contractile vacuole
Secondary active transport	For example proton pump or K/Na pump,
What is metabolism?	The sum of an organism's chemical reactions. THey are never in equilibrium. Iit consists of thousends of metabolic pathways that catalize several reactions of catabolisms and anabolism.
Difference between catabolism and anabolism:	Catabolism: release of energy by breaking down mollecules to simpler ones (exergonic) Anabolism: consuption of energy by synthesis of complexer molecules (endergonic)
Basic function of enzymes	Act as a biocatalyst for metabolic reactions in organisms. It lowers activation energy: the initial energy to start a chemical reaction by orienting substrate correctly, by covalently bond substrates, straining substrate bonds, provinding a faborable microenvironment
Regulation of enzymes	ph, temperature, concentration of substrate and presence of inhibitors, (toxins, trace metals...)
Types of regulation of enzymes	Covalent modification: phosphorylation, desphosphorylation, oxidation or reduction Allosteric regulation: inhibit enzyme activity by adding proteing binding agents to specific sytes in the enzyme. Feedback inhibition: end of the enzyme activity as the result of the end of the metabolic pathway.
Explain Symbiogenesis:	Symbiogenesis, or endosymbiotic theory, is an evolutionary theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic organisms, first articulated in 1905 and 1910 by the Russian botanist Konstantin Mereschkowski, and advanced and substantiated with microbiological evidence by Lynn Margulis in 1967. It holds that the organelles distinguishing eukaryote cells evolved through symbiosis of individual single-celled prokaryotes Mitochondria and Plastits have own dna.
Essemtial processes of life	>Copy intormational micromolecules that carry out specific functions. > Perform specific catalytic functions > Be able to couple energy from the environment
What are Dobzhansys contributions to evolutionary biology?	His wrote "Genetics and the Origin of Species" that meant the most importat update to Darwin's-Wallace theory. He introduced the concept of genetics into the evolution of species. Explaining the chromosomal basis of Mendelian inheritance,
Lamarks thoghts on evolution....	Related fossils and living animals empiricaly, based on similar appearance, and sad that organisms change over time.
Darwin's theory	Evolution carried out by natural selection, and as a theory of adaptation
Today's definition of evolution:	A process by which organisms change over time as a result of change in heritable physical or behavioral traits. Changes that allow an organism to better adapt to its environment help it survive, have more offspring, and pass to the next generation.
Explain convergent & divergent evolution	ivergent evolution occurs when two separate species evolve differently from a common ancestor. ... Convergent evolution occurs when species have different ancestral origins but have developed similar features.
3 types of natural selection	Directional: Favours one extreme trait against other one Stabilizing: Favours moderate traits (cat tails) Disruptive: favours both extremes (very short and very long traits)
Steps of natural selection	1) overproduction, a species tends to have more individuals that can survive to maturity 2) the individuals have many differing characteristics 3) Some individuals survive longer and reproduce more 4) the traits of those individuals become more common
Foster's rule	n evolutionary biology this is an ecogeographical rule saying that members of a species get smaller or bigger depending on the resources available in the environment.
Homologous vs analogous structures	Homologous (Divergent) Analogous (Convergent)
Common descent	All living organisms on earth are related!
Systematics	Systematics deals with arrangement of taxonomic groups based on genetic relationships.
Taxonomical kindom	Second largest taxonomic rank below domain. Kingdoms divid in phyla 5 kingdoms: Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, and MOnera
Field experiments should have:	Treated groups: the ones changed artificially Control groups: unchanged conditions Random distributions Reproducibility
Definitions:	Ecosystem: Sum of biotitc and abiotic factors
Behavioral ecology:	how behavior impacts survival
Autoecology:	How individuals afect their environment and how the environment affects them
Environmental factors that affect reproductive rates of mice:	Population ecology (dynamics of growth)
What affects biodiversity of species in a forest	Community ecology (interdependence of populations)
Trees lining in a chanel, how they interact as corridors	landscape ecology
Conditions, in which organisms can live	Temp- 0°K to 350°C ph 1-12 Vacuum to 1000 bar Salinity- up to saturation point of water
Organisms: Euryoic vs. Stenoic	Euryoic, not specialists, broad tolerance, not optimally adpated Stenoic... specialists, Evolution--- Euryoic to Stenoic
What is ecological valence?	The range of a factor in which organism can live
Potency (ecological factor)	optimum range with long-term survival
Ecological Niche theory	A hypothetical space generated by the connectivity of all factors
Fundamental niche:	Largest possible area where an organism can survive.
Realized/effective niche	Area where an organism actually is
What is required for the development of biodiversity?	Driver-> Competition for higher efficiency in resource utilization
Biodiversity in regions with stabile boundary conditions:	Undisturbed development Large diversity, high resistance, low resilience Rainforest/deep sea
Regions with fluctuating boundary conditions	lesser degree of specialization, better resilience, but lower resistance
Requisites of formation of new species	geographic isolation genetic barriers new species
Ecotype	subpopulations of a species with some degree of difference, generaly restricted to a certain habitat
Competition	Competition -- Episitism + - (parasitism) Mutualism ++
What is the strongest type of competition	intraspecific
Gauses law	Two species cannot coexist if all factors remain constant but: species adapt along a gradient
Mechanisms of avoidign competition	Character displacement: DIsplacement at a different part of the gradient
Niche Packing	all available space was taken

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